The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything. Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question. The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results. Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

1. Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings. This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
2. Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis. This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:  Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study. This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate. Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation. Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the "So What?" question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study. Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:  Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following:

1. Discussing or interpreting your results. Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
2. Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
3. Ignoring negative results. A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
4. Including raw data or intermediate calculations. Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
5. Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings. Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
6. Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once. If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
7. Confusing figures with tables. Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table.

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Chart -- see "graph."

Diagram -- a drawing that illustrates or visually explains a thing or idea by outlining its component parts and the relationships among them. Also a line drawing, made to accompany and illustrate a geometrical theorem, mathematical demonstration, etc.

Drawing -- a graphic illustration of representing a person, place, or object or a technique for outlining the geometry, layout, location, and design of a figure, plan, or sketch by means of lines.

Figure -- a form bounded by three or more lines; one or more digits or numerical symbols representing a number.

Flowchart -- a pictorial summary  [graphical algorithm] of the decisions and flows [movement  of information] that make up a procedure or process  from beginning to end. Also called flow diagram, flow process chart, or network diagram.

Form -- a logically structured document with a fixed arrangement of captioned spaces designed for entering, extracting, or communicating required or requested information.

Graph -- a two-dimensional drawing  showing a relationship [usually between two set of numbers] by means  of a line, curve, a series  of bars, or other symbols. Typically, an independent variable is represented on the horizontal line (X-axis) and an dependent variable on the vertical line (Y-axis). The perpendicular axis intersect at a point called origin, and are calibrated in the units of the quantities  represented. Though a graph usually has four quadrants representing the positive and negative values  of the variables, usually only the north-east quadrant is shown when the negative values do not exist or are of no interest. Often used interchangeably with the term “chart.”

Histogram -- step-column chart that displays a summary of the variations in (frequency distribution of) quantities [called Classes] that fall within certain lower and upper limits  in a set of data. Classes are measured on the horizontal ('X') axis, and the number of times they occur [or the percentages  of their occurrences] are measured on the vertical ('Y') axis. To construct a histogram, rectangles or blocks are drawn on the x-axis [without any spaces between them] whose areas are proportional to the classes they represent. Histograms [and histographs] are used commonly where the subject  item is discrete (such as the number of students in a school) instead of being continuous [such as the variations in their heights]. Also called frequency diagram, a histogram is usually preferred over a histograph where the number of classes is less than eight.

Illustration -- a visual representation [e.g., picture or diagram] that is used to make a subject in a paper more pleasing or easier to understand.

Map -- a visual representation of an area. It is considered to be a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes. Examples of types include climate, economic, resource, physical, political, road, and topographic maps.

Pictograph -- visual presentation of data using icons, pictures, symbols, etc., in place of or in addition to common graph elements [bars, lines, points]. Pictographs use relative sizes or repetitions of the same icon, picture, or symbol to show comparison. Also called a pictogram, pictorial chart, pictorial graph, or picture graph.

Symbol -- Mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship.

Table -- an orderly arrangement  of quantitative data in columns and rows. Also called a “matrix.”

When to Use Non-textual Elements in Your Paper

The decision to use graphs, charts, diagrams, photographs, maps, illustrations, or any other forms of non-textual elements in the results section of your research paper should be a process of consciously considering whether any visual aids improve a paper's overall quality and readability. Do not include non-textual elements if the information can otherwise be described clearly and succinctly or if it does not contribute to understanding findings directly associated with the research problem. Below are examples of when you should consider or not consider using non-textual elements in your paper.

WHEN YOU SHOULD

• There is a Lot of Data. The most common reason why scholars choose to include non-textual elements in a study is that the research relies upon, or has generated, a large amount of information that needs to be summarized for the reader. This is especially true for studies using quantitative methods of analysis or that use surveys or other types of instruments for gathering large amounts of information or data.
• Presenting Data Over Time. Charts and graphs are especially useful for visualizing changes over time. For example, to compare how exports in coffee has changed over time in two countries, you can display a line chart where the x-axis graphically displays the volume of coffee exported and a y-axis is the period of time in years. The chart would have two lines visualizing the data for each country. This allows the reader to quickly comprehend how much exports have increased or decreased over time.
• Compare or Contrast Multiple Sets of Information. There are many types of charts, graphs, and diagrams. Many are particularly useful when you need to show how different sets of information compare or contrast with each other. This helps the reader contemplate the results of a study before moving on to the discussion section to consider why these differences may be significant and what the implications may be in relation to addressing the research problem.
• Bring Important Clarity to Multi-layered Research Problems. Visual aids can highlight and bring clarity to understanding complex issues in ways that cannot be adequately expressed using only words. For example, a research study focused on documenting litter problems in city streets can include a GIS map that highlights the severity of the problem in particular neighborhoods in relation to the background and socioeconomic status of residents and the distribution of bus stops and other places where people gather. This allows the writer to summarize the information and focus on discussing ways to interpret the results.
• Help to Reveal Patterns and Trends. A thorough description of patterns and trends that have emerged from the findings can over-complicate the narrative, making it difficult for the reader to follow the author's logic and main points. Non-textual elements can help visualize any patterns and trends within the data because it condenses this information in a way that allows the reader to quickly view the results, then focus on the narrative explanations of the key findings.
• Picture is Worth a Thousand Words. Photographs have the ability to visually document not only a specific moment in time, but to convey the emotions, feelings, and unique experiences of people at the center of your study. In this way, photographs help to humanize a research problem. For example, if your paper examines how local indigenous populations in different regions of the world respond to climate change disasters, photographs can help convey the struggles and adaptive strategies of people more effectively than relying exclusively on descriptions of what has happened.

WHEN YOU SHOULD NOT

• An important aspect of academic writing is the text must be clear and concise. If the data or information can be easily summarized, then adding a non-textual element is not necessary. For example, in the case of using a pie chart or bar graph to show only two contrasting numbers, such as, a difference in the number of charter schools versus public schools in a school district, would not help the reader understand the data any better than simply stating the difference in the text and moving on to explain why it is important [i.e., twenty percent of schools in the district are now chartered].
• Always be aware of the narrative flow of your paper. Non-textual elements ask the reader to stop, review the non-textual element, contemplate what it means, and then return to the reading the paper, sometimes over and over again. Given this, always keep in mind the importance of conveying key information to the reader through the use of narrative explanations before inserting a visual aid. If you decide to insert a visual aid, note that it needs to fit logically within the overall narrative flow of your paper.
• Adding a non-textual element should directly relate to understanding the research problem or main arguments of your paper. Visualizing information can capture the reader’s attention in ways that a narrative description cannot. However, you should always measure the importance of using a graph, chart, illustration, or other non-textual element against whether it adds explicit value to understanding the research problem. If you determine that it does not, then it is likely superfluous.
• Avoid overloading your paper with non-textual elements. In many science disciplines, such as geology or engineering, it is expected that a research study will include numerous visual aids. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, you should be deliberate in selecting how many non-textual elements you include in the main text of your paper because using too many can be overwhelming and hinder comprehension of the essential arguments you are trying to convey to the reader. If you must include numerous visual aids, prevent cognitive overload by placing them in an appendix or appendices.

Use non-textual elements, such as figures, tables, graphs, maps, photographs, etc., to support your key findings. Readers should be able to discern the meaning of non-textual elements on their own without having to refer to the text to understand the data being presented. Reference to a non-textual element in the text of your paper should focus on describing its significance in relation to the research problem or the topic being discussed.

In the social sciences, non-textual elements must have neat, legible titles, be simple, and have detailed captions that are written in complete sentences; they should fully explain the item without forcing the reader to refer to the text. Conversely, the reader should not have to refer back and forth from the text to the non-textual elements to understand the paper.

General rules about using non-textual elements in your research paper:

• Each non-textual element must have a short, descriptive title, numbered consecutively and complete with a heading [e.g., Table 1. National Sales Activity from 2009-2014].
• Conform to the rules set forth within the writing style you are using for the paper regarding the use of non-textual elements [e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago] and use it consistently throughout your paper.
• Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result being described, or refer to them in an appendix--do one or the other but never both.
• You should explicitly reference the number of the figures, tables, graphs, etc. in the text [i.e., "Table 6 shows..."]. Avoid expressions like, "in the chart on the following page" or "in the table below."
• If you choose to place non-textual elements within the paper, they should be positioned as close as possible to where it is first mentioned in the text.
• If you place non-textual elements in an appendix, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any raw data.
• Each non-textual element must be interpreted and its relevance and significance explained in relation to the research problem.
• All non-textual elements should have a consistent look about them. This can be achieved by the following do's and don'ts
  • do use a box or frame to surround the element.
  • do not use a different text font to that used in the body of the work [e.g., Ariel vs. New Times Roman].
  • do use small caps when formatting headings.
  • do not use fancy or cursive fonts.
  • do change the page layout from portrait to landscape if this helps you display the non-textual element more effectively; always place the "top" of the page along the left-hand margin and maintain page numbering.
• If the non-textual element within the text is not adapted from another source and totally your own creation, take credit for your work and say so! Otherwise, you must cite where you found the data. You must also cite the source even if you reorganize or rearrange the data [e.g., "Chart 4 is adapted from..."].
• You may refer to non-textual elements by using parentheses with or without the verb “see” (i.e., "see Table 1"). However, it is important to be consistent with whichever choice you make.

References to non-textual elements within the text of your paper are generally put in parentheses, e.g. "...the number of schools have grown (see Figure 1)" or "...although the distribution of savings among city employees has been reduced during the last decade (Chart 2)" because this information is generally supplementary to the results themselves; most of the text should focus on highlighting key findings.

NOTE:  Do not overuse non-textual elements! Include them sparingly and only in cases where they are an effective means for enhancing and/or supplementing information already described in your paper. Using too many non-textual elements disrupts the narrative flow of your paper, making it more difficult for the reader to synthesize and interpret your overall research. If you have to use a lot of non-textual elements, consider organizing them in an appendix. and refer to them in the text, such as, "data shown in Appendix One shows...."

ANOTHER NOTE:  Excel and other computer programs are capable of creating very elaborate, colorful, and dramatic looking non-textual elements. However, be careful not to let aesthetics and artistry overwhelm the message you are trying to convey to the reader. Use these features only to help improve the reader's understanding of the information being presented. For example, if a pie chart is being used to show the distribution of responses to a survey, use distinctive colors to distinguish between each part of the chart.