This article aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of writing, organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the subsequent articles). Phrases listed here are more general communicative functions of academic writing. The article should be particularly useful for writers who need to report their research work.
One of the most noticeable stylistic aspects of academic communication is the tendency for writers to avoid expressing absolute certainty, where there may be a small degree of uncertainty, and to avoid making over-generalisations, where a small number of exceptions might exist. This means that there are many instances where the epistemological strength (strength of knowledge) of a statement or claim is mitigated (weakened) in some way. In the field of linguistics, devices for lessening the strength of a statement or claim are known as hedging devices.Analysis of research reports have shown that discussion sections tend to be particularly rich in hedging devices, particularly where writers are offering explanations for findings.
It is thought that …
It is believed that …
It has been reported that …
It is a widely held view that …
It has commonly been assumed that …
According to Smith (2002), …
According to recent reports, …
According to many in the field …
Many scholars hold the view that …
Smith (2001) holds the view that …
Recent research has suggested that …
There is some evidence to suggest that …
If Smith’s (2001) findings are accurate, …
| These frequent storms | may be could be might be are almost certainly | due to climate change. |
| It may be It is likely It could be It is possible It is probable It is almost certain | the more extreme weather | is a result of climate change. |
| A likely explanation A probable explanation A possible explanation | is that | these frequent storms | are a result of climate change. |
This inconsistency may be due to …
This discrepancy could be attributed to …
A possible explanation for this might be that …
This rather contradictory result may be due to …
It seems possible that these results are due to …
The observed increase in X could be attributed to …
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out …
There are several possible explanations for this result.
There are two likely causes for the differences between …
A possible explanation for these results may be the lack of adequate …
Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …
These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients.
These data must be interpreted with caution because …
These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution.
These results do not rule out the influence of other factors in …
This account must be approached with some caution because …
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.
Although exclusion of X did not …, these results should be interpreted with caution.
However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be …
The findings of this study suggest that …
One possible implication of this is that …
Taken together, these results suggest that …
The evidence from this study suggests that …
Initial observations suggest that there may be a link between …
The data reported here appear to support the assumption that …
The findings from these studies suggest that X can have an effect on …
Strategies to enhance X might involve …
Other types of response could include: a), b). …
These results would seem to suggest that the …
There would therefore seem to be a definite need for …
A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to …
Another possible area of future research would be to investigate why …
| Severe weather | may could might is likely to will probably will almost certainly | become more common in the future. |
| It is likely It is possible It is almost certain There is a possibility There is a small chance There is a strong possibility | (that) the situation will improve in the long term. |
In general, this requires …
In general terms, this means …
Xs use generally accepted principles to …
X is generally assumed to play a role in …
Authors generally place an emphasis on …
Generally accepted methods for X include: …
Studies which show no effect are not generally published.
Research articles generally consist of the following components:
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist paradigm.
| Ozone levels | often generally frequently sometimes occasionally nearly always | exceed WHO levels in many cities. |
| Ozone is toxic to | most almost all some types of many types of the majority of certain types of | living organisms. |
Ozone tends to attack cells and break down tissues.
There is a tendency for ozone to attack cells.
As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer’s arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people’s criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved.
… being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking.
Edward de Bono
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they …
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on …
Such approaches, however, have failed to address …
Previous published studies are limited to local surveys.
Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether …
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than
published studies on the effect of X are not consistent.
Smith’s analysis does not take account of …, nor does she examine …
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
Most studies of X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to limited comparisons of …
However, few writers have been able to draw on any systematic research into …
Short-term studies such as these do not necessarily show subtle changes over time …
Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which …
However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if …
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …
| (However,) | Smith fails to fully define what … Jones fails to acknowledge the significance of … the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between … the paper would appear to be over-ambitious in its claims. another weakness is that we are given no explanation of how … no attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y. the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how … the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that … the research does not take into account pre-existing … such as … the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between different types of X. |
| Smith The paper The book | fails to does not makes no attempt to | specify … quantify … compare … separate … account for … suggest why … analyse how … ascertain whether … distinguish between … explain the meaning of … provide information on … address the question of … assess the effectiveness of … use a standardised method of … give sufficient consideration to … consider the long term impact of … offer an adequate explanation for … engage with current discourses on … determine the underlying causes of … systematically review all the relevant literature. |
The study would have been more interesting if it had included …
These studies would have been more useful if they had focused on …
The study would have been more relevant if the researchers had asked …
The questionnaire would have been more useful if it had asked participants about …
The research would have been more relevant if a wider range of X had been explored
| The study The findings Smith’s paper Her conclusions | would have been break might have been | more break far more break much more | useful original relevant convincing interesting persuasive | if he/she had break if the author had | used … adopted … assessed … included … addressed … considered … |
Smith’s argument relies too heavily on …
The main weakness with this theory is that …
The key problem with this explanation is that …
However, this theory does not fully explain why …
One criticism of much of the literature on X is that …
Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide …
However, there is an inconsistency with this argument.
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that …
However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that …
One of the main difficulties with this line of reasoning is that …
Smith’s interpretation overlooks much of the historical research …
Many writers have challenged Smith’s claim on the grounds that …
The X theory has been criticised for being based on weak evidence.
A final criticism of the theory of X is that it struggles to explain some aspects of …
| The theory is unable to | predict … explain why … fully account for … adequately explain the … explain what happens when … make any useful prediction about … explain the differences observed when … provide a comprehensive explanation for … |
The limitation of this approach is that …
A major problem with the X method is that …
One major drawback of this approach is that …
A criticism of this experimental design is that …
The main limitation of this technique, however, is …
Selection bias is another potential concern because …
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that …
In recent years, however, this approach has been challenged by …
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that …
Critics of laboratory-based experiments contend that such studies …
There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less …
| However, | this method of analysis has a number of limitations. this method does involve potential measurement error. there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken. one of the problems with the instrument used to measure X was … approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. |
| However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious | drawbacks. limitations. weaknesses. shortcomings. disadvantages. |
| In her In their In this | useful timely seminal detailed thorough excellent influential important innovative pioneering impressive wide-ranging comprehensive ground-breaking | study (of X), survey (of X), analysis (of X), examination (of X), investigation (into X), | Smith (2012) showed that … Jones (2013) concluded that … |
Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide …
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
Smith’s meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that …
The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers.
These claims have been strongly contested in recent years by a number of writers.
More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982):
Critics have also argued that not only do surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the …
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that …
Smith (2014) disputes this account of …
Jones (2003) has also questioned why …
However, Jones (2015) points out that …
The author challenges the widely held view that …
Smith (1999) takes issue with the contention that …
The idea that … was first challenged by Smith (1992).
Smith is critical of the tendency to compartmentalise X.
However, Smith (1967) questioned this hypothesis and …
Jones (2003) has challenged some of Smith’s conclusions, arguing that …
Another major criticism of Smith’s study, made by Jones (2003), is that …
Jones (2003) is probably the best-known critic of the X theory. He argues that …
In her discussion of X, Smith further criticises the ways in which some authors …
Smith’s decision to reject the classical explanation of X merits some discussion …
In a recent article in Academic Journal, Smith (2014) questions the extent to which …
The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003), who argues that …
A recently published article by Smith et al. (2011) casts doubt on Jones’ assumption that …
Other authors (see Smith, 2012; Jones, 2014) question the usefulness of such an approach.
| Smith (2020) | criticises … questions … challenges … is critical of … casts doubt on … points out that … takes issue with… raises a number of questions about … |
When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they share as a class. Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information systematically. The order of a list may indicate rank importance.
X can be classified into Xi and Xii.
X can be categorised into Xi, Xii and Xiii.
Several taxonomies for X have been developed …
Different methods have been proposed to classify …
X may be divided into several groups: a) …, b) … or c) …
Generally, X provides two types of information: Xi and Xii.
It has become commonplace to distinguish ‘Xi’ from ‘Xii’ forms of X.
X is generally classified into two types: Xi, also known as …, and Xii or …
There are two basic approaches currently being adopted in research into X. One is …
The theory distinguishes two different types of X, i.e. social X and semantic X (Smith, 2013).
The works of Smith fall under three headings: (1) dialogues and …, (2) collections of facts, and …
| X may be divided into | three main | classes. sub-groups. categories. |
| X may be classified | on the basis of according to depending on in terms of | Y | into Xi and Xii. |
Smith (2015) draws a distinction between …
Smith (2006) categorised X as being a) …, b) …, or c) …
Smith’s (1980) typology of X is the one most widely–used.
Jones (1987) distinguishes between systems that are a) …, b) …, or c) …
A third method, proposed by Smith et al. (2010), bases the classification on a …
To better understand X, Smith et al. (2011) classified Y into three distinct types using …
For Smith, X is of four kinds: (1) X which …; (2) X which …; (3) X which …; and (4) X which…
In Jones’s system, individuals were classified as belonging to upper or lower categories of …
Smith’s Taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of …
Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) …, and b) …
| In the traditional system, X is graded | in terms of … on the basis of … according to whether … |
| Smith (1966) | divided classified grouped | Xs | into two broad types: Xi’s and Xii’s. |
| Smith (2015) describes | four basic kinds of validity: | logical, content, criterion and construct. |
| This system of classification | includes … is misleading. |
This topic can best be treated under three headings: X, Y and Z.
The key aspects of management can be listed as follows: X, Y and Z.
There are three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are:
There are two types of effect which result when a patient undergoes X. These are …
The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are: …
The Three Voices for Mass is divided into six sections. These are: the Kyrie, Gloria, ….
Appetitive stimuli have three separable basic functions. Firstly, they … Secondly, they …
During his tour of Britain, he visited the following industrial centres: Manchester, Leeds, and …
This section has been included for several reasons: it is …; it illustrates …; and it describes…
The Mass for Four Voices consists of five movements, which are: the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei.
Smith and Jones (1991) list X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality.
Smith (2003) lists the main features of X as follows: it is X; it is Y; and it has Z.
Smith (2003) argues that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) … and b) …
For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds: (1) motion which …; (2) motion which …; (3) motion …
Smith (2003) suggests three conditions for X. Firstly, X should be … Secondly, it needs to be …
By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as the whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an introductory sentence expressed in general terms.
X is different from Y in a number of respects.
X differs from Y in a number of important ways.
There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
Areas where significant differences have been found include X and Y.
In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
A descriptive case study differs from an exploratory study in that it uses …
Smith (2015) found dramatic differences in the rate of decline of X between Y and Z.
Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they …
The nervous systems of Xs are significantly different from those of Ys in several key respects.
| Smith (2015) | found observed | clear minor major notable distinct only slight significant considerable | differences between X and Y. |
Both X and Y share a number of key features.
There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
The effects of X on human health are similar to those of Y.
Both X and Y generally take place in a ‘safe environment’.
These results are similar to those reported by (Smith et al. 1999).
This definition is similar to that found in (Smith, 2001) who writes:
The return rate is similar to that of comparable studies (e.g. Smith et al. 1999).
The approach used in this investigation is similar to that used by other researchers.
Studies have compared Xs in humans and animals and found that they are essentially identical.
| The mode of processing used by the right brain | is similar to that is comparable to that is comparable in complexity to that | used by the left brain. |
| Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present | whereas while | literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. |
| Whereas While | oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, | literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. |
| This interpretation | differs from that contrasts with that is different from that | of Smith and Jones (2004) who argue that …. |
| In contrast to oral communities, | it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. |
| Compared with people in oral cultures, | people in literate cultures organise their lives around clocks and calendars. |
In the trial, women made more/fewer errors than men.
Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men.
Women are more/less likely than men to perform well in tests.
Women are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills.
Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed.
Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as …
Women are more/less likely to suffer from X when the front part of the brain is damaged.
The part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres may be more/less extensive in women.
| It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. | By contrast, In contrast, On the other hand, | many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth. |
| Young children learning their first language need simplified input. | Similarly, Likewise, In the same way, | low level adult learners need graded input supplied in most cases by a teacher. |
| Smith (2015) sees X as … Smith (2015) argues that … | Similarly, Likewise, In the same way, | Jones (2019) asserts that … Jones (2019) holds the view that … |
In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. More generally, however, academic writers define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic.
The term ‘X’ was first used by …
The term ‘X’ can be traced back to …
Previous studies mostly defined X as …
The term ‘X’ was introduced by Smith in her …
Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe …
It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by …
This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word ‘X’.
| A university is | an institution | where knowledge is produced and passed on to others |
| Social Economics may be defined as | the branch of economics | [which is] concerned with the measurement, causes, and consequences of social problems. |
| Research may be defined as | a systematic process | which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. |
| Braille is | a system | of touch reading and writing for blind people in which raised dots on paper represent the letters of the alphabet. |
X can broadly be defined as …
X can be loosely described as …
X can be defined as … It encompasses …
In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to …
In broad terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is …
Whereas X refers to the operations of …, Y refers to the …
The broad use of the term ‘X’ is sometimes equated with …
The term ‘disease’ refers to a biological event characterised by …
Defined as …, X is now considered a worldwide problem and is associated with …
| The term ‘X’ | refers to … encompasses A), B), and C). has come to be used to refer to … is generally understood to mean … has been used to refer to situations in which … carries certain connotations in some types of … is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to as … |
The definition of X has evolved.
There are multiple definitions of X.
Several definitions of X have been proposed.
In the field of X, various definitions of X are found.
The term ‘X’ embodies a multitude of concepts which …
This term has two overlapping, even slightly confusing meanings.
Widely varying definitions of X have emerged (Smith and Jones, 1999).
Despite its common usage, X is used in different disciplines to mean different things.
Since the definition of X varies among researchers, it is important to clarify how the term is …
| The meaning of this term | has evolved. has varied over time. has been extended to refer to … has been broadened in recent years. has not been consistent throughout … has changed somewhat from its original definition … |
X is a contested term.
X is a rather nebulous term …
X is challenging to define because …
A precise definition of X has proved elusive.
A generally accepted definition of X is lacking.
Unfortunately, X remains a poorly defined term.
There is no agreed definition on what constitutes …
There is little consensus about what X actually means.
There is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology in …
These terms are often used interchangeably and without precision.
Numerous terms are used to describe X, the most common of which are ….
The definition of X varies in the literature and there is terminological confusion.
Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term ‘X’: a) …
‘X’ is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about …
X is a commonly-used notion in psychology and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely.
Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to …
| The meaning of this term | has been disputed. has been debated ever since … has proved to be notoriously hard to define. has been an object of major disagreement in … has been a matter of ongoing discussion among … |
The term ‘X’ is used here to refer to …
In the present study, X is defined as …
The term ‘X’ will be used solely when referring to …
In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all …
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is ‘X’.
In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean …
Throughout this thesis, the term ‘X’ is used to refer to informal systems as well as …
While a variety of definitions of the term ‘X’ have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …
For Smith (2001), X means …
Smith (2001) uses the term ‘X’ to refer to …
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term …
In 1987, psychologist John Smith popularized the term ‘X’ to describe …
According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), X is ‘the maximally …
This definition is close to those of Smith (2012) and Jones (2013) who define X as …
Smith, has shown that, as late as 1920, Jones was using the term ‘X’ to refer to particular …
One of the first people to define nursing was Florence Nightingale (1860), who wrote: ‘… …’
Chomsky writes that a grammar is a ‘device of some sort for producing the ….’ (1957, p.11).
Aristotle defines the imagination as ‘the movement which results upon an actual sensation.’
Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: ‘health is a state of being with …
X is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as ‘… …’
The term ‘X’ is used by Smith (2001) to refer to …
X is, for Smith (2012), the situation which occurs when …
A further definition of X is given by Smith (1982) who describes …
The term ‘X’ is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying …
X is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures … (Smith et al., 1986).
| This definition | includes … allows for … highlights the … helps distinguish … takes into account … poses a problem for … will continue to evolve. can vary depending on … was agreed upon after … has been broadened to include … |
| The following definition is | intended to … modelled on … too simplistic: useful because … problematic as … inadequate since … in need of revision since … important for what it excludes. the most precise produced so far. |
A trend is the general direction in which something is developing or changing over time. A projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for writing about trends and projections is given below.
| The graph shows that there has been a Figure 2 reveals that there has been a | slight steep sharp steady gradual marked | fall rise drop decline increase decrease | in the number of … |
| What is striking What stands out What is interesting What can be clearly seen | in this | table chart figure | is the growth of … is the high rate of … is the variability of … is the dominance of … is the rapid decrease in … is the steady decline of … is the general pattern of … is the dramatic decline in … is the continual growth of … is the difference between … is the phenomenal growth of … |
Production of X peaked in 1985.
X rose to a high point and peaked in …
The peak age for committing a crime is 18.
The number of Xs reached a peak during …
Production of X reached a low point in 1990.
The rate fell to a low point of $5.00 at the end of the year.
| The rate of X The amount of X The number of Xs | is likely to will probably is expected to is projected to | fall | after 2035. |
The language for writing about quantities can be a complex area for non-native speakers because there are many combinations of short grammar words, such as prepositions and pronouns, and these can easily be confused. Many of the phrases given below also contain approximators such as: nearly, approximately, over half, less than, just over.
Over half of those surveyed indicated that …
Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that …
Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on …
Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that …
The number of first marriages in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths.
Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that …
| Well over More than Just over Many more than Around Just under | half a third a quarter | of those surveyed of the respondents of those who responded | agreed that … |
Singapore has the highest proportion of millionaire households.
The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annum.
The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945.
Scotland had the lowest proportion of lone parents at only 14 per cent.
The proportion of the population attending emergency departments was 65% higher in X than …
70% of those who were interviewed indicated that …
Since 1981, England has experienced an 89% increase in crime.
The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months.
In 1960 just over 5% of live births in 1960 were outside marriage.
Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate.
He also noted that fewer than 10% of the articles included in his study cited …
With each year of advancing age, the probability of having X increased by 9.6% (p = 0.006).
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
X found that of 2,500 abortions, 58% were in young women aged 15-24, of whom 62% were …
| Well over More than Just over Many more than Around Just under | 40% 50% 80% | of those surveyed of the respondents of those who responded | agreed that … |
The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m …
This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages.
The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy …
Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy.
The mean age of Xs with coronary atherosclerosis was 48.3 ± 6.3 years.
Mean estimated age at death was 38.1 ± 12.0 years (ranging from 10 to 60+ years)
The mean score for X was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine …
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
Estimates of X range from 200,000 to 700,000 and up to a million or more.
The respondents had practised for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years).
The participants were aged 19 to 25 and were from both rural and urban backgrounds.
Rates of decline ranged from 2.71– 0.08 cms per day with a mean of 0.97 cms per day.
They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%–36.4% for the humanities, 25%–57% for …
The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years.
At between 575 and 590 metres depth, the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of …
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 to $9,833.
A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one could say that problems are the raw material for a significant proportion of academic activity. However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and effects is listed below.
| Lack of iron in the diet | may cause can lead to can result in can give rise to | tiredness and fatigue. |
| Scurvy is a disease | caused by resulting from stemming from | lack of vitamin C. |
| Much of the instability in X | stems from is driven by is caused by can be attributed to | the economic effects of the war. |
X has contributed to the decline in …
It is now understood that X plays an important role in …
A number of factors play a role in determining the effects of …
The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through…
Recent research has revealed that X has a detrimental effect on …
A number of factors are known to affect the volume and type of …
All these factors can impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of …
X is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of
| Several factors are known to | affect X. shape X. predict X. increase X. influence X. determine X. affect the rate of … be associated with … increase the risk of … be partially responsible for … play a role in determining X . |
One reason why Xs have declined is that …
A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness.
The causal role of X in Y has been demonstrated by …
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise.
The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within …
X can have profound health consequences for older people.
Physical activity is an important factor in maintaining fitness.
Many other medications have an influence on cholesterol levels.
X is a key factor in …
X is a major influence on …
X has a positive effect on …
X has a significant impact on …
X is an important determinant of …
X and Y are important driving factors of Z.
X is generally seen as a factor strongly related to Y.
X is a significant contributory factor to the development of …
This work has revealed several factors that are responsible for …
The study found that loneliness has twice the impact on early death as obesity does.
| X is a/an | risk common dominant predictive important significant underlying contributing confounding complicating | factor | in … for…. |
| 200,000 people per year become deaf | owing to because of as a result of as a consequence of | a lack of iodine. |
| If undernourished children do survive to become adults, they have decreased learning ability. | Therefore, Consequently, Because of this, As a result (of this), | when they grow up, it will probably be difficult for them to find work. |
| Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to work in adulthood, break The warm air rises above the surface of the sea, | thus break thereby | perpetuating the poverty cycle. break creating an area of low pressure. |
X may be an important factor in …
X may contribute to the increase in …
X may play a vital role in bringing about …
X may have been caused by an increase in …
There is some evidence that X may affect Y.
These findings suggest that X could improve …
It is not yet clear whether X is made worse by Y.
X appears to be linked to Y.
The use of X may be linked to …
In many cases, X may be associated with …
In the literature, X has been associated with Y.
A high consumption of X could be associated with …
This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y.
Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments. Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally, students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood a complex problem or concept. It is important to note that when statements are supported with examples, the explicit language signalling this may not always be used.
A well-known example of this is …
Another example of what is meant by X is …
This is exemplified in the work undertaken by …
This distinction is further exemplified in studies using …
An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which …
The effectiveness of the X technique has been exemplified in a report by Smith et al. (2010)
| A classic A useful A notable A prominent An important | example of X is ….. |
This is evident in the case of …
This is certainly true in the case of …
The evidence of X can be clearly seen in the case of …
In a similar case in America, Smith (1992) identified …
This can be seen in the case of the two London physics laboratories which …
X is a good illustration of …
X illustrates this point clearly.
This can be illustrated briefly by …
By way of illustration, Smith (2003) shows how the data for …
These experiments illustrate that X and Y have distinct functions in …
For example, the word ‘doctor’ used to mean a ‘learned man’.
For example, Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in …
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example, be influenced by ….
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers or …
The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, and aluminium, have declined over …
Pavlov found that if a stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the …
Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, and migraine.
Gassendi kept in close contact with many other scholars, such as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and …
This case has shown that …
This has been seen in the case of …
The case reported here illustrates the …
Overall, these cases support the view that …
This case study confirms the importance of …
The evidence presented thus far supports the idea that …
This case demonstrates the need for better strategies for …
As this case very clearly demonstrates, it is important that …
This case reveals the need for further investigation in patients with …
This case demonstrates how X used innovative marketing strategies in …
Recent cases reported by Smith et al. (2013) also support the hypothesis that …
In support of X, Y has been shown to induce Y in several cases (Smith et al., 2001).
Previewing what is to follow in a paper or dissertation is like showing a map to a driver; it enables them to see where they are going. So it is useful to think of a preview section as a ‘road map’ for the reader. It must be accurate, but it must be easy to follow.
Writers are also expected to indicate to the reader when they are moving from one topic to another, or from one section of text to another. These are known as transition statements and examples of these, together with some previewing statements, are given below.
The section below describes …
What follows is an account of …
In the following pages, I will present …
The following is a brief description of …
In the section that follows, it will be argued that …
The problem of X is discussed in the following section.
A more detailed account of X is given in the following section.
The structure and functions of X will be explained in the following section.
The following part of this paper moves on to describe in greater detail the …
| The section below The section that follows | discusses … provides a brief overview of … establishes the framework for … reviews the literature related to … explores the relationship between … presents two influential theories which … |
Regarding X, …
As regards X, …
In terms of X, …
In the case of, X …
With regard to X, …
With respect to X, …
On the question of X, …
As far as X is concerned, …
As discussed above, …
As explained earlier, …
As previously stated, …
As indicated previously, …
As described on the previous page, …
As was mentioned in the previous chapter, …
Returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …
As explained in the introduction, it is clear that …
As was pointed out in the introduction to this paper, …
Turning now to …
Let us now turn to …
Let us now consider …
Moving on now to consider …
Turning now to the experimental evidence on …
Before proceeding to examine X, it is important to …
Before explaining these theories, it is necessary to …
Having defined what is meant by X, I will now move on to discuss …
So far this paper has focused on X. The following section will discuss …
This chapter has demonstrated that … It is now necessary to explain the course of …
Having discussed how to construct X, the final section of this paper addresses ways of …
This section has analysed the causes of X and has argued that … The next part of this paper will …
Another significant aspect of X is …
In addition, it is important to ask …
Unlike Smith, Jones (2014) has argued …
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2014) maintains …
Despite this, little progress has been made in the …
However, this system also has a number of serious drawbacks.
On the other hand, in spite of these recent findings about the role of …,
Thus far, the thesis has argued that …
The previous section has shown that …
To conclude this section, the literature identifies …
This section has reviewed the three key aspects of …
In summary, it has been shown from this review that …
This chapter has described the methods used in this investigation and it has …
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to …
This chapter began by describing X and arguing that … It went on to suggest that the …
In this section, it has been explained that … The chapter that follows moves on to consider the…
In the chapter that follows, I present …
The next chapter describes the synthesis and evaluation of …
A summary of the main findings, together with …, is provided in the next chapter.
The next chapter describes the procedures and methods used in this investigation …
In the next section, I will present the principal findings of the current investigation …
These analytical procedures and the results obtained from them are described in the next chapter.
| The next chapter The following chapter | moves on to consider … provides an account of … presents a case study of … establishes the framework for … reviews the literature related to … explores the relationship between … summarises the main themes that emerged … |
Writing about the past in English is made difficult by the rather complex tense system. However, the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writing. For a comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult a good English grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, Oxford University Press.
| In 1933, Three years later, From 1933 to 1945, In the 1930s and 1940s, During the Nazi period, Between 1933 and 1945, | restrictions were placed on German academics. |
| For centuries, Throughout the 19th century, At the start of the 19th century, In the latter half of the 19th century, At the beginning of the 19th century, Towards the end of the 19th century, In the early years of the 19th century, At the end of the nineteenth century, In the second half of the 19th century, | authorities placed restrictions on academics. |
To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y.
Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y.
So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z.
Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade.
Until recently, there has been little interest in X.
Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields.
In recent years, researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but …
More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about …
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many …
Over the past 30 years there has been a significant increase in …
Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in …
Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z.
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
Several recent studies have revealed that
It has been shown that … (Smith, 2002, Jones, 2007).
X has been intensively investigated recently due to its …
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X.
X has been identified as a major contributing factor for the decline of …
Factors thought to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
The new material has been shown to enhance X (Smith, 2002, Jones, 2007).
The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 2002, Jones,
There have been several investigations into the causes of X (Smith, 2005; Jones, 2007).
| The first | detection of X came in 1992 when … systematic study of X was reported by Smith et al. in 1992. experimental treatment of X, by Smith et al. (1992), used a … |
| In 1969 | Smith et al. | performed the first … published a paper in which they described … introduced a system of classification based on … demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to … |
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